Diffusion Of Responsibility Theory

Responsibility theory is like human responsibility, social responsibility and is related to legal responsibility. It is an ethical theory that says, everyone has its responsibility and are accounted to the society whether an individual, a bigger one like a town, a company, or the government. It is of importance to basically magnify its simple principles. Social responsibility is the answer to the inquiries on why people are subjected and often times ending up in to blaming, admonishing, and punishing each other.It is simply voluntary; it is on the subject of giving more than, further than and beyond what is called for by the law or the â€Å"legal responsibility†. Wherein you a person is accounted and responsible not because there exist a law, a rule, or an order from a higher being in position. There exists a basis of volunteerism. Diffusion of Responsibility Theory If you have a neighborhood or someone who is in trouble or in a snag and a group of people are standing, watchi ng around, they usually tend to do nothing. This common scenario has been well studied.Distinctively, the idea of diffusion of responsibility is merely cycling in this. The theory here is that responsibility diffuses or disperses across and among the group such that no individual could feel enough and aware himself enough to step forward and get involved. Some analogous situations may also occur like in situations in committees, when a thing has been existing around them waiting to be accomplished yet ignored after sometime, students are subjected to the establishment of blame, admonishment and punishment.And in this case, responsibility theory has some noteworthy advantages. Social responsibility in a huge way is important for it is a principled, moral or ideological theory that a person whether it is an administration, a conglomerate, an organization or an individual has accountability to the society or the general public. This theory is voluntary: it is on the subject of giving m ore than, further than and beyond what is called for by the law. This â€Å"called for by the law† is simply the â€Å"legal responsibility† and this is somehow not in the boundaries of volunteerism principles.Wherein you a person is accounted and responsible not because there exist a law, a rule, or an order from a higher being in position. In here, a person can’t promise a free accountability for his people. It is out of his deep willingness to do a certain thing and only accounted and responsible when he is obliged by something: for example, it could be a law or a rule. To explain this topic further, let us have this simple basis example. By law, a conglomerate’s or a corporation’s main responsibility is to produce money (income) as much as possible for shareholders and make it a point that they obey the law.Social responsibility even with no contact onto the people involve, accompanies organizations being responsible for the people as well as f or the environment they affect. This organizations or companies have the ethics, moral responsibility to do so with regards to their power and influence. They certainly have this dominance or power to help people or, could be at the least, not harm them. This responsibility theory is a principle of law that connoting every being whether it is a small group like village, town, or the big ones like companies, government or could be just an individual has its own accountability to the society.In this responsibility theory, I couldn’t miss out mentioning these two universal rules because I believe it somehow relates each other and crosses each others’ principle. First is, The Golden Rule: Do unto others what you want others do unto you. And second, The Utilitarian Principle: here is where you behave in a way that could result in for the benefit of the greatest number and for the greatest good. The connection among them is like this.Let’s say, some people emphasize t hat industries or companies have no responsibility (social responsibility) other than to augment their firms, enlarge returns, and abstain or desist from appealing in deception and fraud. It just means that the more they seek to maximize returns; they almost more often than not incidentally do what is good for the society. Building on the diffusion of the theory of responsibility and added subject matter- volunteerism, one way or another certainly it squabbles that a sense of responsibility originate transversely the personal and social domains of individuals who volunteer.

Delivering Lifelong Learning Essay

Introduction. Learning is an area of our lives that we all engage in from the time we are born to the time we die. Lifelong learning is of key importance for individuals of all ages with an abundance of benefits. Learning enables the individual to be better informed in daily life and therefore the individual becomes more active in and contributes to society and this makes such individual a better citizen. Lifelong learning contributes to an individual’s personal well being and fulfillment. Lifelong learning supports an individual’s creativity and innovation and as such increases the potential for paid or unpaid work experiences for satisfaction. Quote â€Å"Education is the most powerful weapon you can use to change the world† Unquote, and so for me to successfully be able to use inclusive learning and teaching approaches in accordance with internal processes and external requirements I would say requires some form of recognised qualifications. To complete this unit I will be focusing on my present teaching placement. I am actively involved in the teaching and learning of ESOL students at two separate women’s academy campuses. My input is over two days with two morning sessions and one afternoon session delivering entry level 1&2 basic Mathematics and English as well as level 1&2 functional skills. 1.1 Create a purposeful, inclusive learning and teaching environment. Maslows’ hiearchy of needs tells us that students will not be able to learn effectively if their safety and belonging needs are not met. As such I needed to pay close attention to the physical space and design layout of the classroom. My initial feel for the first classroom/ learning environment that I encountered was congestion by that I mean it was a fair sized room but the layout gave an impression that there wasn’t enough space for students to move about. There were five large desks seating four or five students and so moving from one a rea to the next meant that some students had to physically stand and maneuver their chairs to access passing. This was where I felt that I needed to connect with the students in such a manner that the subject being taught was of importance; that they enjoyed the learning experience  and they understood clearly what was being taught. Once I placed that into my mind I felt better as these students were here in this learning environment for a few weeks and I am the new person here. I greeted the group with pleasantness and smiles as I entered the room and the response was ever so wonderful seeing all these smiling faces made me feel very welcomed. Their personal tutor gave a short explanation of my presence and asked me to do the honors of my own introduction. I knew there and then that this was my opportune moment and as first impressions count this had to be very good after all I am the new comer. Prior to this I had already met and discussed the different groups that I would be involved with for my teaching practice placement with the Assistant Director for these campus sites and I also knew which teachers I would be co-teaching with as well as the desired days and times. I was made aware of the external requirements and the internal processes for each learner to participate in these learning programs. I knew th at each individual had an initial diagnostic assessment to determine the level of learning. I was made aware of the special needs requirements. Whilst I was happy to be given such information I wanted to check for myself and with respect I could not just accept all of this at face value I would be sure to check the validity of the information shared with me. There is the saying seeing is believing and I needed evidence. Well, as I was saying my initial greeting and purpose was a pleasant and warm one for me as well as the group. I informed them of my past work experiences; that I had a family and my country of origin and where I was educated. I also mentioned places that I had travelled to and worked in the educational arena and eyes lit up with smiles, I knew then that I had captured the attention and to a certain degree the hearts of these wonderful women who wanted to make a difference in society and to themselves by engaging in this learning program. I felt good as I detected that they were even more warm and accommodating and that I had welcomed them into my arena and they accepted me. In continuing to create a purposeful, inclusive learning and teaching environment I needed to acknowledge the diverse make up of the learning group that amounted for celebration as part of the richness in daily life and living. I asked if the group could individually introduce themselves by saying their names and with permission their country of origin. To continue on the same spirit of connectedness as I am the  newcomer who will be involved in their learning I wanted to know from themselves a little about their prior learning experiences from pre- entry level to this entry level 2/3. Amazingly they volunteered family information which I welcomed and thanked them for. Psychologically the students felt safe to share and clearly this also demonstrated a sense of belonging. I had created a safe environment whereby the students took risks and sometimes the information was not directly from the person concerned but from a close colleague in their presence. I felt that this feelings of safety will enable them to ‘have a go’ at answering questions and talking / participating in the classroom activities without fear of being ridiculed. With the above in mind I had to be quite sure that the whole cla ssroom was conducive to this settled environment whereby they all understand firm rules and routines. By this I mean that I emphasizes on the importance of orderliness and tidiness. This I made quite clear was to enable them to develop and be confident in their roles as students but not to forget that they are responsible adults also and that we all wish to be valued and in the best way possible. Making sure that the classroom is left in a manner that is welcoming for the next group of learners and that we never forget our life skills that we brought into the learning arena. I had observed that the displays in the classroom were inviting and pleasant as well as stimulating. This was reflecting a range of teaching and learning activities. I observed the attractively arranged, effectively labelled, relevant and purposeful displays and I was quite impressed wondering when and what will I be adding to this informative and interactive display. It didn’t take very long for that to happen with display from a field trip involving writing and speaking that reflected the learning process as part of the curriculum highlighting key learning points. As such the inclusive learning and teaching environment for me was not just in the classroom but out in the wider community and this was most interesting as I observed how the students interacted in a social setting. There was a wide range of reading and learning materials available for the students both in the classroom area as well as in the main library. They were well organised and clearly labelled and accessible. The resources were diverse and this was of absolute necessitity as there are different learning styles. The availability was through visual, aural and kinaesthetic for different experiences. Creating a purposeful inclusive learning and  teaching environment was not just about changing attitudes to learning. It was not just about giving all the support needed both internally and externally. It was not just about the all the activities in class and in the community, it was also about the physical layout of the design of the classroom that supported the inclusive and int eractive teaching and learning process. Seating and tables in some areas did not give much work space, and did not allow for the flexibility to support work in different contexts. By this I mean for individual work with the adequate space to place materials on the table without infringing on each others’ work space. Paired work, small group work as well as whole class work had been a concern at times. Limitation for me to move around and be able to see exactly how students were progressing in their given task was inadequate at times. As such with cooperation between the whole group and teachers a bigger and more appropriate room was made available. This new setting enabled the students the opportunity for independence, cooperative learning, collaboration and discussions throughout the teaching activities with eye contact for the learners. This also gave better access to move about the room that enabled me to ensure more purposeful, inclusive learning and teaching. However I had to be mindful of the social and emotional dynamics of the learning group as well as subjects and activities being taught/ delivered. I wanted my students to definitely see the co urse as being important. I wanted them to understand and enjoy each session because everything has an impact on learning and development. The classroom environment was maintained within the Health and Safety Laws ensuring that all learners were treated fairly and respectfully in that learning environment. 1.2 Demonstrate an inclusive approach to teaching and learning in accordance with internal processes and external requirements. An inclusive approach to teaching and learning is a cooperative relationship between learners and teachers. The starting point to such a relationship was with the college requirements / internal processes based on what the learners were hoping to achieve. This first contact was conducted by senior management at the initial stage of the individual’s learning journey, the initial assessment. From the institution perspective assessment provides statistical information  for monitoring the overall performance of the college as well as individual teachers. This also provides information on numbers of students who started the course. The numbers of those who continued and whether successfully passed has been useful in continued recruitments that demonstrates quality and excellence. However one of the main purpose and is of great importance is that this initial assessment helps to place the learner on the right course. After this initial assessment matching into identified learning groups is of great value for personal tutors as there is an element of control over what is taught. However, and I must stress this, individual learner’s goals must be paramount in the whole process bearing in mind the learning styles identified. A process of matching group interest and individual profile determines the learners interest which is an ongoing internal process with regular updates. This was managed by identifying individual learning targets such as, speaking and listening, reading or writing. Having identified these targets being specific as to how to meet these targets was discussed with the individual learner and this information was documented. Clearly there has to be deadline for achievements with expected documentation. Actual dates of achievements were quite important and by this I mean that some learners achieved positive outcomes before the set expected date and this informed the status of that learner as completing work was documented and dated. For others the documentation on expected outcome was that they had not yet started or that they’re in progress. This happens in all learning settings as everyone has different learning styles or even a combination of styles that has an impact on how well learning has been achieved under certain conditions. The diagnostic assessments will continue throughout the learning and this is necessary for the continuous support needed for ILPs. ILP is of such great importance in that it must be appropriate for the learning being undertaken, be owned and used by the learner with support and be understood by the learner, basically it’s what the learner desires. I would say that throughout my teaching and learning experience and, this is ongoing I have experienced a range of learning styles with my learning groups. Inevitable I have had to mould the delivery of subject in such a manner that met the needs of the learners. Once this is managed properly the resulting factor will determine the success of achievements in accordance with (QCF) Qualification and Credit Framework. 1.3 Provide opportunities for learners to practice their literacy language, numeracy and ICT skills. The Sector Skills Council for lifelong learning on Inclusive Learning approaches for Literacy, Language, Numeracy and ICT skills in the introduction of the companion document mentions that, â€Å"All teachers need to develop an awareness of the literacy, language, numeracy and ICT needs of their learners in order for them to teach their area of specialism.† The document further states that â€Å" All teachers can play an important part in providing opportunities to develop literacy, language, numeracy and ICT within their learning programs.† Teachers get to know their students very well after a little while and as such are able to recognise what interest them most. The initial assessment gives some indication of what they want to learn but the diagnostic assessment informs the ILP. How this process of achievement will happen is based on agreeing goals and actions to achi eve those goals. Petty, G (2009, p530) states: â€Å"Each learner is unique and has individual needs. If the needs of our learners are discovered and met, the chances of success are greatly increased.† 2.0Be able to communicate with learners and other learning professionals to encourage learning. 2.1Demonstrate communication methods and media to meet the needs of all learners. 2.2Communicate with other learning professionals to meet learner needs and encourage progress. 3.0Understand how technology can enhance learning and teaching. 3.1Analyse ways to use technology to enhance learning and teaching. 3.2Evaluate the benefits and limitations of using technology in learning and teaching. 4.0Understanding expectations of the minimum core in relation to delivering lifelong learning. There are social stigma attached to literacy numeracy and this often prevents adults from seeking the help they need. It is believed that 1 in 6 adults in the UK are functionally illeterate and this skills gap is preventing the country from fully realising its full economic potential. There are social stigmas attached to this which often prevents adults from seeking the help they need. For such individuals tackling this is the first step to raising aspiration. The psychological feel good factor will allow for increased self esteem and the confidence to reach their full potential. However being illeterate and innumerate and lacking ICT skills does not mean stupidity. You have to on the ball to get through a day in the UK without these skills and so as a teacher delivering lifelong learning I must be able to help learners to overcome these barriers created by socially acceptable norms in this country. Expectations of the minimum core I believe is that all involved in lifelong learning has a responsibility to ensure that learners are provided with every opportunity to develop literacy, language, numeracy and ICT skills. As such it is important that at the initial assessment and induction of students that literacy, language, numeracy and ICT skills are identified. We must understand that Prior learning should be established and evidenced if at all possible to determine the level attained which will inform achievable goals. Observation at induction and during the course activity to get some idea of the learner performance and what learner’s likes are, also how they like to do things will determine learning styles. Really this boils down to attitudes, skills and knowledge and what will be the motivating factor for the learner’s presence in the classroom. 4.1Review ways in which elements of the minimum core can be demonstrated by delivering lifelong learning. Recognising that literacy, numeracy and ICT programmes must be made easily accessible to the most hard to reach individuals is a key responsibility for the Government. For those who lack the ability to read and write very door appears to be closed. In this present day it is likely that they will e able to apply for jobs as filling in application forms poses some challenges which in effect will make them  loose their self worth and confidence. Adults lacking the skills that so many of us take for granted on a daily basis mean that they can’t even support their children’s education which is the future generation. If this is not effectively managed the revolving door syndrome continues as that is what is being seen at present. National statistics reveal that adults with poor numeracy and literacy skills are twice as likely to be unemployed as those who are competent. 4.2Apply minimum core elements in delivering lifelong learning. I will demonstrate this delivery of core elements with evidenced based teaching that I have undertaken and continuing as part of my teaching placement practice. 5.0Be able to evaluate own practice in delivering inclusive learning and teaching. 5.1Review the effectiveness of own use of inclusive learning and teaching approaches in meeting the needs of all learners. 5.2Analyse ways to improve own practice in using learning and teaching approaches to meet the needs of all learners. 5.3 Review ways in which own communication skills could be improved.

Billing System Essay

1.1 Introduction As the world progresses on in this never ending chase for a time and wealth, it is undeniable that science has made astounding developments. Technology and computers are everywhere. Today, they are becoming the foundation of any development of society. The computer system is not a simple machine. It is like a very modern and highly complex calculator. It can do all the functions at a speedy rate and also helps us to search and progress in our homes and businesses. This is apparently complicated, but the vibrant outcome will make our work effective and efficient. Computer technology is very important especially in the business field. It can help to make work easier. Computer is a powerful tool, allowing you easily extract data in order to prepare reports and analyze the information. Computers can help a business stay in contact with its customers as well. Computers can help managers keep track of the financial status of the company on a yearly, monthly or even day-to-day basis. Companies can use their computers to print checks for payroll and expenditures, and can form a direct link to the company’s bank account. Computers through internet connection made business transactions easier and more convenient. As compared to hard copied data which is more prone to damage data saved in the computer is more secured. Thus, computer plays a big role and importance in the business field. Already computers have become such an important part of our lives—in airports, banks, railway stations and every well-equi ­pped modern office. As computer continues to proliferate in ever increasing numbers across large segments of Government, business and industry, the common man is beginning to believe hesitantly that computers can actually deliver a good part of the promise that they had offered. Society is  gradually accepting the fact that computers will indeed change the manner in which the things are done. For a water billing, which is complex, repetitive and has voluminous data computerization is recommended. Computerization overcomes many of the defects in the manual system, is fast and gives a control on the system. In our study entitled â€Å"Computerized Billing System for Pansol Rural Waterworks†, the researchers will give an extent or the effectiveness on keeping the consumers’ consumption information, and the establishment’s collection in more advance and effective ways. The proponent think that with strong desire and hope that advance development of this study would be more significantly help on the way to a good and efficient billing system which should lead to at least minimizing if not eradicating the negative and undesirable aspects of this proposed system. 1.1.2 Background of the Study On May 23,1981, the residents of Barangay Pansol voluntarily associated themselves to form an association whose primary purpose is to provide its members with adequate supply of potable water for domestic use at reasonable cost. A year later, Pansol BWP- RWSA Inc. was constructed jointly by the USAID/BWP – MILG and the provincial government of Batangas under the administration of Governor Jose C. Laurel. A contract was made and entered into by and between the provincial government of Batangas and the Association. It was represented by then President Mr. Juan E. Manalo, the duly authorized representative. The province lent to the Association 44.67% of the total project cost amounting to P 141,602. 30 to finance the construction of the Level II water system or communal faucet in Barangay Pansol. The loan is  payable within 20 years with interest rate 4% per annum. As the population grew, the necessity for household connections increased and it gave rise to the Level III project or the individual household connection. The Association consists of 948 active members as of January 25, 2015. Thru the dedication of its Board of Directors, they put up a separate fund to provide scholarship grants to poor but deserving students, of which the fund came from 100% of their per diem. But many have applied for the grants and the  Directors asked for the Waterworks Association’s counterpart for the continuance of its project. Now on its 12th year, the scholarship is still on- going. The other project was the summer Art Workshop which had 33 graduates and concluded in May 22, 2009. The Association also did its part in the constructionof the multi- purpose building which house the Barangay Waterworks Office, the Barangay Health Center and the Barangay Hall. Pansol Rural Waterworks has newly opened its Refilling Station to ensure the availability of clean and safe water at lower costs. As of today, there are 11 employees at Pansol Rural Waterworks who are truly dedicated in serving Pansolians, headed by a Board of Directors whom are all residents of Pansol, Padre Garcia, Batangas. 1.2 Statement of the Problem 1. 2. 1 General Problem This study seeks to find out the solutions to the problems encountered by Pansol Rural Waterworks and their consumers. It deals with the problem with their manual billing system which results to slow processing of transactions. 1. 2. 2 Specific Problems Slow processing of transactions on billing Inefficiency of calculations and recorded transactions Time wasting is the result of slow billing process 1.3 Objectives of the Study 1. 2. 1 General Objectives This study aims to develop an organized and an effective billing system in terms of working capabilities. It will help to build an efficient system to minimize the processing period of transactions between the administration and the consumers. 1. 2. 2 Specific Objectives To avoid the slow processing of transactions due to manual transaction system. To provide an efficient and effective calculations and transactions between consumers and administration. To lessen the time and effort in processing billing transactions. 1.4 Significance of the Study The researchers are proposing the â€Å"Computerized Billing System for Pansol Rural Waterworks†. This will assure the institution’s development initiatives and faster billing transaction processing among administration and their consumers. If the proposed system will be implemented, this will be the conversion of the current manual system to a computerized one. The study would be beneficial to both administration and consumer. In view of the fact that this institution is currently encountering problems in their manual billing system, the proposed computerized system would be needed to eliminate or at least lessen such problem. The transaction can be done faster, easier and accurate which will result to less time and most burden of work load will be reduced. In addition to this, the proponents will also benefit from the study, because they will be able to meet the requirements and will also learn from their research. For future researchers, this study will serve as a reference material related to their own studies. 1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study The focus of the study deals mainly on the billing system of the institution. These include all necessary statement specifying the payment transactions including the receipt which will serve as the generated report of the billing transaction. This study clearly implies that the other aspects of the institution’s operation such as payroll and other unrelated system are not included in our study. The research is absolutely focused on the billing transactions of the company and it has nothing to do with any other unrelated transactions. 1.6 Methodology A series of interview was administered to obtain the needed and accurate information for this study. The researchers have had a board interview regarding the system’s requirement and the information to be encoded in the system. Internet is a great help in the fulfilment and completion of the documents for this study. Through internet browsing, the researchers found out several related  literatures and studies including foreign and local researches which was compared to the proposed system which is the â€Å"Computerized Billing System for Pansol Rural Waterworks.† Another means of research is library research in which the proponents found additional literatures and related studies. 1 .7 Conceptual Framework The design will seek and provide solution for the problems that are being encountered by the institution and it’s consumer. Through the use of this design, the billing system with all the necessary data would be successfully done and recorded during the billing process. This shows the fundamental basis of the proposed system. The inputs which are Meter Number, Last Name, First Name, Middle Name, Address, Contact Number, Month, Due Date, Present Reading, Previous Reading, Consumption, Bill Amount and Penalty were presented here. Fig. 1: Conceptual Framework The figure shows the fundamental basis of the proposed system. The inputs which are Meter Number, Last Name, First Name, Middle Name, Address, Contact Number, Month, Due Date, Present Reading, Previous Reading, Consumption,  Bill Amount and Penalty were presented here. This also shows that the process is the Computerized Billing System for Pansol Rural Waterworks, and the generated output of the process is the receipt. 1.8 Definition of Terms System- is a set of interacting or interdependent components forming an integratedwhole Billing system- is a combination of software and hardware that receives call detail and service usage information, groups this information for specific accounts or customers, produces invoices, creates reports for management, and records (posts) payments made to customer accounts. Computerization- involves the process of taking activities or tasks not previously done on the computer and shifting them to being done on the computer. Hardware – is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a computer system. Computer hardware is the physical parts or components of a computer, such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard, and so on, all of which are physical objects that can be touched (that is, they are tangible) Software- is any set of machine-readable instructions that directs a computer’s processor to perform specific operations. Computer software contrasts with computer hardware, which is the physical component of computers. Technical feasibility- is one of the first studies that must be conducted after the project has been identified. Economic feasibility- is the cost and logistical outlook for a business project or endeavor. Operational feasibility- is a measure of how well a proposed system solves the problems, and takes advantage of the opportunities identified during scope definition and how it satisfies the requirements identified in requirements analysis phase of system development. Visual Basic 6.0- is a high level programming language which evolved from the earlier DOS version called BASIC. Windows- is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of several families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry Microsoft Access- is a database management system from Microsoft that combines therelational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and software-development tools. It is a member of the Microsoft Office suite of applications, included in the Professional and higher editions or sold separately. Database- is a collection of information that is organized so that it can easily be accessed, managed, and updated. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES This chapter tends to discuss the related literature and study. This will show the distinction between the related studies of the other research to the proposed system. These write- ups were of great help to the proponent’ s  task of accomplishing their objective. 2.1 Related Literature As the researchers conducted their research, they gathered all this related literature. According to James A. Seen, author of the book entitled â€Å"Analysis Design of Information System† states that system development can generally thought of using as having two major components, system analysis and generally system design is the process of planning a new business system to replace or component the old. But before this can be done, we must thoroughly understand the old or present system and determine how computer can be used to make the operation effective. Just as the same with how the proponents started the system analysis for this study. The analysis started from analysing the existing or the old system of the company. From the author of the book entitled â€Å"Modern System’s Analysis and Design† that was written by Jeffrey A. Hatfer, Joey F. George and Joseph A. Valacich, the goal of 6000 design is to provide a system that is easy to read, easy to code, and easy to maintain. They define information system analysis and design of information system is based on the understanding of the organization , objective, structure and process. Information system can be developed through various methodologies and comprehensive multiple step approaches to develop a system. Techniques are particular processes that follow to ensure the study is well – through- out complete and comprehensive. The goal of information system for the organization is to respond and anticipate problems and opportunities through innovates uses of information. Like this proposed study, the proponents goal is to design a system that will help the company improve and innovate. According from an internet article by Pradeep Gokhale entitlted â€Å"Computerised Water Billing System†, Amaravati water supply scheme is the  only urban water supply scheme in Maharashtra which has been getting the facility of computerized water billing system continuously since 1991. The operating of the system has been outsourced. The software development has not been in a year or two, but it has been in process years together and proudly contributed by generously from meter readers, counter clerks, fitters, plumbers, clerical staff in the office, and auditors and accountants, to the higher officers, engineers at all levels, and most of consumers of the scheme. It has become most intelligent software in the country and now it is not only utility software but it is management software. It is in use in number of cities in Vidarbha and has to share the experience of managing more than 800, 000 consumers in the Delhi, the Capital city of the Country, since 1995. Following script has been included in the Maintenance Manual for urban areas. Water Billing and Revenue Management System is the most important aspect of any Water Supply Scheme as it governs the financial aspect, which is the most important factor. Irrespective of the basis of the Billing Metered/Unmetered, the Computerized Billing System needs three major databases: First is the master data, this is the data, which needs to be entered only one time when the Consumer/Connection is added into the database. This data is relatively static in nature and does not change time to time. Various data required   to be store dare: Consumer Number, Name of Consumer, Address, Type of Use, Type of Consumer, Tap Size, Date of Connection, Details of Feeder Line, Locality, House No., Ward No., No. of taps, No. of Families, Meter Make, Meter Number, First Reading, Ownership of Meter, Deposit Amount etc. Second is the data for each billing period, this data will be entered for every consumer for every round and will be used for calculating the demand of that billing round. Various data items required to be stored are ; Consumer Number, Date of Meter Reading/Period for which Billed, Status of the Connection and any changes in Master Data etc. And the third is the receipt data, this data will be the data related to the payments made by the consumers against the bill issued. This data will be entered on daily basis irrespective of the billing frequency. Various data required to be stored  are; Consumer Number, Date of Receipt, Receipt Number, Details of the collection Centre, Cash/Cheque (If Cheque- Cheque No., Bank, Branch) Part Payment/Adhoc Payment/Deposit, Account Head for posting etc. The article points out a step- by- step procedure of the system implementation. Like the proposed study, upon impklementation, there will be procedures to ensure the systems data efficiency. According to an anonymous author of an internet article entitled  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Principle of Water Rates, Fees and Charges†, if the utility billing system is computerized, the time required for the preparation of the bill tabulation may be relatively short, perhaps only one or two weeks. The computer staff may however be required to develop specific programs to extract and summarize data in the form required, and delays are often encountered because computer time is not readily available when needed. By the beginning the bill tabulation early in the cost of service study, the results should be available to avoid delay both in the design of rates and in the evaluation of the adequacy of proposed rates to recover allocated costs of service from customer classes. A bill tabulation shows the number of customer bills rendered at various levels of water usage during a specific period of time for each customer class served by the utility. The tabulation of bills for a historical period provides the basis for identifying typical customer- class usage patterns and aides in the development of rates recognizing such usage patterns. Rate schedules that are intended to be applicable throughout an entire year generally require a bill tabulation for a historical record. Slow processing is one of the problems that occur in the existing manual system, and like what was mentioned in the article, it is the researcher’s target to increase the speed of process and to lessen the delays of transactions. As said in an internet article entitled â€Å"Developing Effective Waterworks  and Collection Practices†, written by an anonymous author, improving billing and collection activities has an immediate impact on the revenue streams of a service provider that can, in turn, encourage commercial and operational efficiencies for aiding the expansion and delivery of improved, reliable, and sustainable services. This note draws on national and international cases to explore what it takes to implement an effective billing and collection system. Effective billing and collection systems are a critical component for ensuring the viability of a service provider. Improving these has an immediate impact on the revenue streams of a service provider that can, in turn, help in improving services. Effective billing and collection systems are a critical component for ensuring the viability of a service provider. Improving billing and collection activities has an immediate impact on the revenue streams of a service provider that can, in turn, help the service provider in improving services. However, while effective billing and collection practices depend on many internal factors (including customer databases, the extent of metered and unmetered service provision, tariff and billing structures, delivery of bills, and facilities for customer payments), the institutional arrangements under which service providers operate and provide services determine whether such practices will remain sustainable in the long term. Efficient billing and collection practices can set incentives for the provider to effectively charge, and collect water bills while also fulfilling a commercial  orientation to services the revenue streams of a service provider that can, in turn, help in improving services. This note draws on national and international cases to explore what it takes to implement an effective billing and collection system that encourages commercial and operational efficiencies for aiding the expansion and delivery of improved, reliable, and sustainable services. The note starts with an explanation of how poor billing and collection hurt the service provider, followed by the key principles of an effective billing and collection strategy, illustrated through national and international billing practices. The basic aim of the performance improvement series is to help water utilities and service  providers understand and adopt mechanisms that promote cost recovery and sustainable revenue strategies, as well as help achieve financially viable and sustainable improved services. The objective is to be able to focus not only on specific performance improvement areas by advancing technical, commercial, and operational efficiency—such as leak reduction, billing and collection, customer service, and tariff setting, among others—but also ensure that such improvements remain sustainable and viable in the long term through arrangements such as performance agreements, monitoring, and evaluation. The article focuses on the importance of effective billing and collection, the common pitfalls that their poor implementation have, and what some service providers have done to improve upon current billing and collection practices—through measures including robust recordkeeping and billing procedures, updating customer databases, outsourcing billing activities and using improved technology, and encouraging and incentivizing staff to undertake billing and collection functions more diligently. Like the study, the goal of desingning a computerized system is to generate an effective billing process in the company. According to http://www.cusi.com/water-billing-system.html, Just like with any business, having the right tools is critical to a company’s failure or success. One of the most critical tools for a successful utility company is having an efficient, yet effective water billing system. Having the right billing in system is place is important for a number of reasons. New water billing software helps utility companies to be more efficient in their overall billing processes, while helping them to boost productivity. New water billing technologies help utilities automate internal billing processes into a simple, effective, and easy to use system. If you’re looking to boost efficiency and productivity, while decreasing customer response times and increasing customer satisfaction, there is no one more trusted in the utility billing services industry than CUSI Utility Billing Solutions. CUSI provides complete personalized billing solutions for  companies with customer bases from 500 to over 500,000. Currently, CUSI has over 1000 companies using their billing solutions to manage their water, sewer, gas, electric, and waste  management operations. Also, CUSI currently offers CIS/Utility Billing solutions to help address challenges of utility companies both large and small. CUSI’s water billing system will offer a number of benefits to your utility company almost immediately. Just the same with the proposed study, the researchers aim to develop a system that will be beneficial to both management and consumer. According to an article entitled â€Å"Water Billing Software Runs the Business† from http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/ , for large commercial water customers with multiple units, like apartment complexes, the water billing software is capable of allocating a single meter reading into multiple bills according to square footage and occupancy. When your utility company outgrows the capability of your current water billing system, invest in the most advanced system to track every aspect of your utility business. Be prepared to update business processes to include the software inputs that will keep the office and field apprised of work activity and customer requests. Train the employees and monitor the ongoing effort to use the software effectively throughout the day. The initial investment in high-quality water billing software will improve your margins and reduce the monetary loss from unpaid accounts. Your customers and employees will be better informed, and the costs will be reco vered within an acceptable  period of time. The same with the proponents target in designing the system, the program will be effective and improve the company’s billing and collection. An article from http://www.waterefficiency.net/ entitled â€Å"The  Benefits of Automated Billing†, says that, by employing water billing software, utilities can reduce the size of their labor force, providing immediate savings. They won’t need as many utility employees to tackle billing issues if software is doing this job for them. And reducing the number of employees in the billing department doesn’t necessarily mean laying off talented workers. Utilities can train billing department staffers to take on other jobs, whether with the municipal utility or elsewhere in the utility. Water billing software also allows utility employees to focus their efforts on other tasks. They can spend more time in the utility’s customer service department answering resident questions. They can analyze the reports created by billing software to hunt for potentially costly leaks. And they can study these same reports to determine new ways to conserve water use and reduce the water utility’s overall costs of providing this water to its customers. Today’s water billing programs provide a host of reports and functions that stretch far beyond simply sending payment notices to consumers. Savvy water utility officials recognize this and use these reports to operate their utilities in a more efficient and cost-effective manner. The proponents study targets to lessen  the work load of employees and the fast processing of billing transactions in the company. According to an article with a title â€Å" Impact of Municipal Billing Systems on Revenue Collection†. The Manila Water Utility undertook a series of reforms between 2000 and 2003. The utility now employs 100 per cent metering on all service connections, which are read monthly. There has been an increase in new service connections, identification of illegal users, billing of unbilled services, and replacement of faulty meters. As a result, revenue has increased by 83 per cent while the average collection period has fallen from 86 days to 50 days . Like the research study, once implemented, the proponents look forward to effective billing and collection of payments in the company. Another article entitled â€Å"Baltimore Approved New Water Billing System† mentioned that, Baltimore officials approved on Wednesday a new water billing system that will bring the current 35-year-old system up to date. In the next couple of years, the city is updating more than 500,000 meters and launching a new billing system. The new system will be the brains behind the city’s new water meters and will allow customers to read bills online and get more information  about water usage. When UMAX launches, it will bill customers on actual usage, meaning no more minimum bills. â€Å"The new system known as UMAX will enable the city to move away from the existing minimum billing model toward a system that charges based on actual consumption,† Baltimore Mayor Stephanie Rawlings-Blake said. Just like the research, it is needed to improve the company’s performance in terms of billing transactions. 2.2 Related Studies 2.2.1 Local Studies In the study conducted by Benipayo (1994), entitled â€Å"Study on the RM/GS Billing System of the Manila Electronic Hotline Telephone Company†, stated that billing system is an essential component of the revenue generating function of the company. Thus, failure to generate bill on the proper time would effect the retaliation in the collection of revenues. The billing update is actually the revision of the entry of the new accounts in the customer file. Failure to update customer state in the billing records shall in a â€Å"no billing† of the consumption and will ultimately cause a non-generation bill. Like the study, the researcher aims to be a  good innovation in the company’s billing process. Effective billing system means good revenue. According to the Casimiro Development Corporation Water Billing System, in March 2001, Bartolome, Alonde, Yanuaria and Atendido made a study about the development of Casimiro’s Water Billing System. Based on their study, the problem was that Casimiro Development Corporation water billing system operates 13 projects and approximately 450 units per project that run in a manual-based environment. To develop more accurate files, they created a well-structured database that lessened and speed up the works in computations in voluminous files with accurate and error-free files. According to the Trece Martires Water District Billing and Collection System. In March 2002, Cruto, Legaspi and Rosero made a study on Trece Martires Water District Billing and Collection System. Based on their study, the problem is that the Trece Martires Water District Billing and Collection System apply the manual processing of its billing and collection clerks and other office personnel. The records of the customers were record in paper works that are less reliable to keep those files. When a customer asks for his/her records, it will add up the workloads of the employees. To accurately keep those records, they developed an automated Transaction Processing System that speed  up the customer’s daily transaction, utilized efficient and safe storage of customer’s records and a more reliable and accurate computation of customer’s water bills. Accurate files is to be provided when this proposed study is implemented. In the study of Bartolome (2000), entitled â€Å"A Computer Water Billing System for Teresa Water Supply†, stated that in making a water billing computerized, numerous benefits can be acquired. One of the benefits is that it speeds up the current computation of the bills wherein the operators will not waste their time in computing the bills of every concessionaire because the system computers it automatically. Like the study, there are also several benefits that can be acquired like the fast processing of billing transactions. A study entitled â€Å"LAN-Based Assessment and Billing System for Camiling† by Angelica Pagaduan said that, the manual method of assessing and issuance of receipt during enrollment period at Camiling Colleges is prone to errors, tedious and most often misplaces records or documents. The people concerned could not accommodate more students because of the slow assessment and computation of fees to be paid, thus, causing inconvenience to both teachers  who are assisting in the enrollment and the students during enrollment. The proposed system will be designed to improve the current Assessment and Billing System of Camiling Colleges. In the study of Purification (1995), entitled â€Å"Billing System of Plaza Hotel†, states that due to probably of manual computation error, computerizing the system will be able to step this probability even it is very rarely experienced in the manual billing system. Like the study of Purification, the study also aims to eliminate or at least lessen the computation error in the billing system. A study with a title â€Å"The Case study of Manila Water Company† states that to maintain a sustainable structure for a world-class standard for water and wastewater services for Metro Manila, there is a need to ensure a balance between the interests of the consumers and the operators. Experience in the Philippines, however, indicated otherwise. The balance of interests was not easy to come by with regulatory regimes suffering from weak regulatory capacity. In order to avoid the same tendencies to repeat in the new contracts, the concession agreement adopted a â€Å"regulation by contract†26 framework. This framework laid down in a clear and detailed manner within the contracts the activities that would be regulated by an independent agency. The same with the study, the proponents aims  to design a system that will be beneficial to both management and consumer. The study entitled †Remote Automatic Water Meter Reading System using Global System for Mobile Communications† by Rainer N. Dita, Paolo Pedro C. Martinez, Chrish Adrian S. Miranda focuses on implementing a GSM based system for the automatic water meter reading in the Philippines. This will determine if there is a significant difference between analog water meter and the proposed system in data collection. Weather conditions and security issues regarding the GSM module will not be taken into account. Also, the network problem due to its provider is not included on the study. This study aims to develop an automatic water meter reading system that will enhance the Analog water meter data collection by utilizing wireless technology using GSM module system for data transmission to increase the range of data transmission. 2.2.2 Foreign Studies A Foreign study entitled â€Å"Irish Water Charges Plan† says that, this document represents Irish Water’s scheme of charges which are reflective of a number of Government and CER directions (some of which are being finalised currently) which in totality comprise the water charges plan. The scheme of  charges in this document are designed to ensure that Irish Water only recovers the allowed revenue approved by the CER over the period 1st October 2014 until 31st December 2016. Irish Water has been guided by principles12 associated with equity and non-discrimination; efficiency in use of Water Services; cost reflectivity; cost recovery; stability and simplicity in developing our scheme of changes. Simplicity of the system, this is what the researchers aim. Our study needs to be simple in order to let the user understand the system easy. The aim of this paper with a title â€Å"Water Label to Improve  Water Billing in Spanish Households† is to propose a new way to improve the contents in water bills by adding a new water label that allows for checking the efficiency of water use. The water tag provides information to tenants about their efficiency of water consumption. In case of houses with a special meter to obtain the domestic hot water consumption, an extra water label can be shown with the evaluation of this kind of consumption. Furthermore, this information is compared to the average consumption value of citizens from the same province. To go further in citizens’ awareness about this subject, some recommendations should also be included, which will help to reduce water consumption. This research takes a new step forward in terms of billing, since it evaluates, compares and gives recommendations with the purpose of improving the actual water billing system,  thus increasing the awareness of citizens and decreasing water consumption in Spanish housing. Although bills are only a means of transmission, considering that it is a receipt of a service, they are subject to certain legal restrictions that, in the case of Spain, are established by Royal Decree 87/2005 [42]. This document indicates the minimum data that bills should contain, such as the invoice number, name and surname, and so on. In addition, there is a part that is considered appropriated to give better customer service. Like the study, it also aims to provide a system that will bring improvement and innovation in the sompany. A study entitled â€Å"Smart Water Systems† present a new approach to promote water security with uncertain but significant future risks from population growth, hydrological variability and extreme events, and intensifying water allocation demands across water supply, agriculture, industry and ecosystems. Strategic and transparent water resource decision making is central for water security to be achieved. This is in turn contingent upon the accurate, timely and reliable collection and communication of information relating to water abstractions and use, and the primary resource base. With mobile networks expanding globally across national territories, SWS offer a mechanism to capture and communicate data  on water resources through hydro-informatic systems on abstraction from surface water and groundwater, soil moisture content, storage  levels and network leaks or theft. By generating accurate and reliable data, SWS deployed at scale can drive a step change in water sector accountability and transparency, thereby improving governance, reducing risk and ultimately creating a new business case for water sector investment. Partnerships across mobile network operators, water service providers, regulators and investors will be needed to realize the full potential of SWS and catalyse further innovations. In a study in India, the Hyderabad Metro Water Supply and Sewerage Board introduced a spot billing scheme for billing its water connections. This helped reduce the billing cycle from three weeks to one day, which in turn resulted in increased cash flow (Agarwal 2008). The Board initially outsourced the billing function to a private party that had relevant experience. Through handheld data logger machines, staff employed by the private party can generate bills on the spot and deliver them to customers. The scheme has been in operation for about 70 per cent of the Board’s service area. In the long run, the Board aimed to hand over the bill generation activity through spot billing to its own meter readers. The Board undertook some restructuring of its current staff, and redeployment and rationalisation of their work schedules. Like our study, the aim of this proposed system is to improve the company’s performance, to lessen the problems and to provide an effective billing sytem.

Vinal Barbaros's Options Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Vinal Barbaros's Options - Essay Example From this study it is clear that when the issues are revealed, conflicts may arise from agency interests, as the uncertainty in the company's future due to its failing operations may threaten the status quo, especially when it comes to cost-cutting activities such as downsizing in order to address the problem on profitability. One of the key stakeholders in this case is the company's major investor, the creditor National Bank of Australia. If the company reports the true amount of the cost estimates, the bank will have to protect its position with regard to its investment in the company. This can be done by downgrading the company's credit rating and increasing the interest payments due to default, or look for a second way out when it comes to getting the amount that is due. In this case, the owner or the major shareholder is deprived of knowing the true performance of the company. Because he does not know, he cannot do something in order to preserve his wealth or shareholder value. As for the company's employees, they will not be informed of the company's shortcomings with regard to dealing with its efficiency and operations productivity. As for the company's major investor, its creditor the National Bank of Australia, it will be able to grant a renewal on the company's loan by assuming that nothing is wrong in the company's operations, which puts its financial position in the company at risk because of misleading information. If the company continues to fail during its subsequent operations, the bank will have to suffer and absorb the losses with regard to the company's failure to pay on time. If the company has been able to recoup its losses, the bank has still been misled by the company because of the act; when it is found out, the bank can resort to proper means in order to compensate it for the possible losses from such act.

Housing for Aboriginal Australia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Housing for Aboriginal Australia - Essay Example Indigenous architecture necessarily identifies with the otherwise inexplicable participatory and consultative design methodologies (Memmott, 2008). Such methodologies or techniques are presumed to be not-so-well calculated or inarticulate though. Australian aboriginals have been known for their indefatigable behavioral tendencies in relation to habitat building efforts (Glascott, 1985). Despite their indigenous qualitative outcomes, a series of deficiencies too has been noted by analysts. The following dimensional analysis of the Australian aboriginals' abode building experience illustrates the whole process of community house building efforts of an indigenous community and their related outcomes (Vulker, 1990). The impact of indigenous culture on the design and construction processes of abodes or dwellings has received much wider attention, especially with emphasis on indigenous people's gregarious behavioral tendency. The community feeling or congregational behavior in indigenous communities such as aboriginals has been investigated with reference to many other aspects though it has very little been studied with reference to their effort to build structures for living (Trewin and ABS, 2006). Indigenous culture of Australian aboriginals has been necessarily associated with their community living experience that presupposes societal interaction at each and every level of social transformation. For instance the aboriginal houses built at Broken Hills in Mutawintji have communal living rooms, bigger cooking areas for preparation of hunted animals, dormitory-like bedrooms and huge compounds (www.heritage.nsw.gov.au, see Appendix).For instance despite the larger impact of migration on these cul tures, still these indigenous populations have managed to remain relatively uninfluenced by exogenous forces of change. However the dichotomy between the traditional culture and the contemporary culture being absorbed by them cannot be emphasized too much. Under exceptional circumstances this dichotomy can be taken to identify a clash of sorts, viz. the contemporary culture might seek to influence the traditional culture to such an extent that societal transformation of the indigenous populations would acquire a heterogeneous element of identity (Flood, 2007). Thus Australian aboriginals have recognized the all too important dichotomy to be a phase just preceding the fluid situation (Burke, 2004). In fact Australian aboriginals have seen how their own culture in housing design and construction has been influenced by the contemporary culture of the heterogeneous diversity. This is an inevitable influence on structure, design and materials. (2). Indigenous design dimensionIndigenous populations like the Australian aboriginals have particularly been able to develop their own design parameters and above all the participatory and consultative paradigms that have been essentially associated with such design processes occupy a still more significant place. Australian aboriginals have been noted for their exotic structural design perspectives in housing (Read, 2000). While autochthonous design traits persist to a greater extent there are also some exogenous characteristics that permeate through the design and construction process. For instance desp

Analyzing sports in Latin America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Analyzing sports in Latin America - Essay Example Strictly speaking the region encompasses many different people from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Although some people would argue that the continent has been dominated by Spanish and Portuguese colonization, many successive waves of immigrants from various parts of Europe, Asia and Africa has made a significant impact on the continent. For example Nestor Kirchner (The former president of Argentina) was of German descent, and Alberto Fujimori (The former President of Peru) was of Japanese descent. This has played a significant role in the impact of sports in Latin America insofar as people tended to bring their own cultural traditions with them when emigrating to Latin America. For example cricket (A sport which was created by the British) plays a more domineering role in the Falkland Islands, and baseball plays a more important role in the Dominican Republic (A nation with some historic ties with the United States). Physical geography plays a significant role in the impact of sport in Latin America because the continent is extremely diverse. FIFA had a temporary ban on international matches stadiums at high altitudes which made it difficult for nations like Bolivia. Moreover, nations that have access to lakes and oceans are more likely to engage in paddling sports than those that are landlocked. For the purpose of this paper the major sports that will be discussed are soccer (football), baseball, and basketball. Without question, soccer plays a significant role in Latin America. Although the sport is likely played across the entire continent some nations have become international powerhouses. Argentina is a nation that not only performs well in international competitions (Such as the World Cup) but has also give us some of the most memorable players. Diego Maradona is a player who came from humble roots in Buenos Aires yet is remember for two major goals during his career â€Å"The goal of the Century† and the â€Å"Hand of God† goal. Just after the completion of the Falkland war Argentina and England came face to face at the 1986 FIFA World Cup Quarter Final. The first half of the game was scoreless yet in the first few minutes of the second half, an English player tried to clear the ball yet accidentally hooked it towards the English goalkeeper. At this point Maradona jumped , screeching through the air with his fist extended which came into contact with the ball which went into the goal. The referee never saw the infraction and the English. However just a few minutes later Maradona ran at full steam for over sixty meters, blazing past five English defenders and ran 'dribbled' the ball around the English goalkeeper to score the goal that the English could not return. Although Argentina went on to win the World cup, it was often stated that beating England was more important as it satisfied their revenge for the Falkland war. Although some soccer players ar e relatively unknown in the United States they are often more popular than movie stars in their own country. Player such as Lionel Messi (Argentina) Ronaldinho (Brazil), Marcelo Salas (Chile), or Cladio Pizarro (Peru) are all international celebrities. Soccer plays a significant role in South American sports but it is by no means the only Sport. In nations such as the Dominican Republic, Cuba and Venezuela

The new meaning of Quality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The new meaning of Quality - Essay Example If we see the size of operations at Sainsbury's meting these attributes consistently is a big challenge . Over the years the business and organizational environment has increasingly become more and more complex. There has been an explosion in choices, options, opportunities and threats, requirements, data and information through IT systems. Organizations have understood the hidden cost of quality, errors, inventories associated with inefficient supply chain. These factors have led to the emergence of a new discipline of supply chain management. A supply chain is essentially managing the journey of inputs to the outputs along with all the associated activities having impact on cost, speed and quality of the output through the journey. Ganeshan & Harrison in their paper explains how traditionally there has been organizations within organizations, silos of functions / departments, each one having their own characteristic goals, many a time at conflict with the organizational goal, resulting in an inefficient supply chain marked by interface problems. The result of these factors is that there is not a single, integrated plan for the organization. Supply chain addresses these issues effectively. Coordination between the various players in the chain is key in its effective management. Cooper and Ellram [1993] compare supply chain management to a well-balanced and well-practiced relay team. Quality begins and ends with customers For any Quality Management System, customer requirement is the input and customer satisfaction is the desired output. The entire quality movement is based on simple but elegant Deming's PDCA cycle. First step in the quality journey is capturing customer requirement followed by design / modification of functions/systems for deployment and continuous improvement of the same through repetitive cycles of feedbacks. The customer experience is captured at Sainsbury's through well-placed mechanisms. Customer Insights group carries out the work of obtaining the true customer requirement by interacting with more than 4000 customers every month which includes obtaining the performance of competitors also in the area of customer satisfaction. Besides the regular channels of obtaining customer perception there is another mechanism to find out customer requirement, which involves trained auditors capturing the customer experiences in the store itself. The practice of interviewing customers in their homes is yet another valuable source of customer expectation determination. The information captured through these mechanisms form the inputs for the Quality Management systems and other operational instruments for delivering the quality products and services to the customers. Supply Chain Transformation at Sainsbury's for improving delivery of quality Sainsbury's had witnessed more than 100 years of successful operations and established itself as market

BUSINESS D M Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

BUSINESS D M - Essay Example All members of the team also agreed on most fundamental point that selected site should have maximum business potential otherwise no sensible promoter will ever risk their funds in a private venture. While doing strength and weakness analysis of each sites by group members following points emerged for each sites. Strengths Weaknesses Site A Site B Site C Plenty of land available Politically quite suitable site Semi-skilled and unskilled workers are available plenty. Most profitable site for business Professionals will love to live here Skilled professionals are available Plenty of the land available for the project A ‘mid cost’ site Not enough housing facilities Professional staff would not like to move here A lot of amount required to be spent on clean up and sterilization Not having enough business potential Protected wild life site Media is against in selection of this site Political activists oppose this site Road conditions are dismal Parking is an issue at this sit e Transport link would take huge budget The group members agreed after deliberations on the following main criteria/objectives of the hospital project that must be fulfilled while selecting the site and they are listed as per the following. 1.

The Money Game Book Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Money Game Book Report - Essay Example I began considering to have a â€Å"budget† and decided to put off some planned but unnecessary purchases. I just opened a savings account with a passbook dedicated for future investment. The course affected me and I would like to answer the questions below with how I understood the subject except on some occasions that it will be best for understanding to lift something from the book. I believe it will best serve the purpose of this course to use my own words as much as possible and also for my better understanding, to conceptualize my answers as I understood it. B. Questions for Book Report 1. Why is the book called â€Å"The Money Game?† The book is called â€Å"The Money Game† because it teaches us to understand the dynamics of how to secure our future from a pragmatist perspective. When I said, pragmatist, it tackles the subject not merely from academic point view, but on its real life application. Moreso, when it also presented the perspective of the both s ides of the coin, the Wall Street view and the Main Street with the author being partial on us the consumers on how we could avoid the financial pitfalls and better secure our future by giving us a hindsight about the other side of the fence. The author has no pretension about the reality on how we should go about in handling our finances, especially in dealing with financial institutions inorder to be financially secured. In fact, a game plan was introduced called Big Dog Playbook II which details the play on we can better our financial position and get rid of debts. 2. Why do many Americans die before they ever have a chance to live? Many Americans die before they ever have a chance to live because they work all their lives and never had the chance to enjoy it. This is because of wrong mindset and priorities and being unprepared for the financial uncertainties and old age. During the most productive part of their lives, they worked so hard to acquire the â€Å"bling-blings† or facade of success and thus raising the standard of their lives but not the actual quality of their lives. They are so mired with work that they did not notice how good the â€Å"rose smell†. As they acquire, they fall to the trap of indulgence, living for today (and more often than not, beyond their means) and not preparing for tomorrow. Such that when financial uncertainty and/or retirement come upon them, many of them are caught unprepared and had to continue working despite retirement age. 3. Who are the three main characters in the book and what impact do they have on your finances? The Invisible Man- The Invisible Man represents the unaccounted expenses that we don’t usually notice because they are just small. But when they are totally accounted for, we will be surprise to learn how much they add up so quickly. The real danger about the Invisible Man is that we do not know that he is already taking toll on our resources. The Money Monster – The Money Mo nster represents our tendency to consume; our endless wants that could never be satisfied. This Money Monster is insatiable and will continue to eat our resources no matter how we much feed it. If we do not tame or put the Money on a diet, we will always be on spending binge without any savings with a mounting debt to surmount. The Precreditor- â€Å"The Precreditor has a growing appetite for our money and will influence law to keep the gravy train going. His hunger has manifested into hundreds of billions of dollars in opportunity cost for consumers

Globalization, as the world has experienced it since the 1970s, has Assignment

Globalization, as the world has experienced it since the 1970s, has been rooted in neoliberal policy. Discuss alternative frame - Assignment Example As Jessop notes, neoliberal doctrine emerged as a dominant ideological force due to the convergence of progressive trends of economic internationalization, the apparent failure of Keynesian welfare state, East Asian developmentalism and Soviet model of central planning; and the emergence of new social forces brought about by the former developments (Jessop 105). The neoliberal theorists seem to proceed from the same assumptions that social liberals take for granted; they proclaim their commitment to a basic right of individual autonomy and assert that the basis of modern society should consist of wide variety of voluntary associations independent from the state control. Nevertheless, neoliberals take the common idea of all liberal thinkers about the necessity of expansion of market economy (Jessop 106) to its extreme limits, arguing that all social relations should be evaluated from the point of their compatibility with the freedom of market transactions. This includes an emphasis on deregulation of the financial markets both in domestic and international spheres; the ideological commitment to the curtailment of state intervention in the capitalist market economy; the introduction of the principle of market efficiency into the sphere of public welfare; and the commitment for the privatization of public enterprises and services (Jessop 107). The cities and city regions are especially affected by the neoliberal project of globalization. The dramatic restructuring of urban communities that began in the 1970s to 1980s led to the increasing marginalization of the relatively numerous swathes of the urban population caused by the drastic rise in unemployment (Swyngedouw, Moulaert, and Rodriguez

USA and Vietcong forces in the 1960s. Essay Example for Free

USA and Vietcong forces in the 1960s. Essay The tactics used by the Vietcong and US military forces were very different and changed during the course of the war. At the beginning of the war the Vietcong (NLF) army was aggressive whilst the US army was defensive. The Gulf of Tonkin incident became Americas excuse to become aggressive towards the Vietcong. In 1965 General W. Westmoreland developed the strategy of search and destroy. Its objective was to find and kill any members of the NLF. US soldiers found this difficult however as the Vietcong always dressed in civilian clothing, and killing peasants by mistake was not uncommon; if hes dead and Vietnamese, hes a V. C. was the view of the troops carrying out the search and destroy missions. It was clear from the outset of war that the US had far more technologically advanced weapons than the Vietcong, which they used throughout the conflict. B-52 bombers altogether dropped 8,000,000 tons of bombs between 1965 and 1973which equated to 300 tons of bombs per person living in Vietnam. This was over three times the amount dropped during the whole of World War Two. Aside from bombs the US also dropped a considerable amount of napalm, a mixture of petrol, phosphorous and a chemical thickener which attaches itself to the skin causing horrific fifth-degree burns to the victim, which could quite often be an unlucky US soldier. Agent Orange, a complex biological weapon was dropped over a lot of the thick vegetation of Vietnam, causing all plant life to die, potentially to expose any hiding Vietcong. The US pioneered the development of anti-personnel bombs, smaller than those dropped from the B-52s, such as the pineapple, which shot shards and needles of metal in all directions. With the many different developments of anti-personnel bombs it was the USs aim not to kill the North Vietnamese but to injure them badly. It cost the Vietcong worse in time and resources to help the injured, whilst dead simply needed burying. Ironically, the Vietcongs supply of explosives for mines and suchlike mostly came from the 800 tons of US bombs that were dropped every month which failed to explode. In order to counter the powerful and technologically-advanced US army, the  Vietcong employed guerrilla tactics which had been used to great effect in Mao Zedongs victory in winning China for communism. The Vietcong were split into small groups of between three and ten soldiers, known as a cell. Cells worked together but knowledge between them was kept to a minimum so that if the cell or part of it was captured and tortured, any confessions made would not damage the Vietcong side very much. The cells, who dressed in civilian clothing, would move between South Vietnamese villages winning the support of the NLF from the villagers. They would help the peasants, not do anything against their wishes and educate them on poverty and other issues, in exchange for food, political and sometimes even military support. To defeat the more powerful enemy, a guerrilla has to dictate the terms of warfare to its advantage. The Vietcong chose the setting of the borders of the thick dense forests of South Vietnam as ambush was very easy. Another of the technical advances on Americas side was the realisation that the helicopter could directly bring the troops straight into the heart of the battle and get them out again quickly. However there was a massive risk related to this. Once the US had decided on a landing area for the helicopter it was not difficult for it to be shot and destroyed by the Vietcong even in the few seconds it was touching the ground. After the troops had been dispatched they would be surrounded on most sides by an invisible enemy hidden in the forest, making the USs task a nightmare. It was not that the Vietcong and NLF leaders did not care that thousands of their soldiers were being sent into battle and being killed. It is that they had the will to continue doing so until the US gave up. Physical losses to the US were not as great as those losses from the American persons view of the war. This I will explain in the next and final question; Why was there such different reactions in the USA to the countrys involvement in the conflict in Vietnam in the 1960s.

Parkinson Disease Essay Example for Free

Parkinson Disease Essay Parkinson disease is a gradually progressive degenerative disorder of the central nervous system. Parkinson disease belongs to a group of conditions called movement disorders. There are four characteristic problems caused by Parkinson disease, including tremor at rest, balance problems, stiffness, and slowness of movement. Parkinson disease occurs when areas of the brain, including an area called the substantia nigra, is slowly destroyed. The exact reason for this destruction is not completely known. In some patients, it may be due to genetic, environmental, or a combination of both causes. The end result is a deprivation in the brain of an important neurochemical, called dopamine. Dopamine helps regulate movement, and its loss leads to increased tone, rigidity, and slowness of movement. Lack of dopamine results in the symptoms associated with Parkinson disease . Approximately 50,000 Americans are diagnosed with Parkinson disease every year. 95% of those diagnosed are over 50 years old. At any given time, about 500,000 people, or 1% of those over age 50 in the US are struggling with this condition. Diagnosis of Parkinson disease is a clinical one, based on history and physical examination. There are no lab tests to definitively diagnose the condition. Your doctor will ask about your medical history and perform a thorough physical exam. A systematic neurological exam will include testing your reflexes and observing things like muscle strength throughout your body, coordination, balance, and other details of movement, including: * Muscle tone Rapid alternating movements * Gait, posture * Postural stability * Quickness and precision of movement * Observation of a tremor (during rest or activity) A mini mental status exam will be performed; questions pertaining to mood, thoughts, and behavior will be asked. Activities of daily living will be evaluated, such as dressing, cutting and eating food, swallowing, hygiene, walking, and falls. The exact cause of PD is unknown. It may have both genetic and environmental components. Some scientists think that viruses can trigger PD as well. Low levels of dopamine and norepinephrine, a substance that regulates dopamine, have been linked with PD. Abnormal proteins called Lewy bodies have also been found in the brains of people with PD. Scientists do not know what role, if any, Lewy bodies play a role in the development of PD. Certain groups of people have an increased risk of PD. Men are one and a half times more likely to get PD than women. Whites are more likely to get PD than African-Americans or Asians. PD usually appears between the ages of 50 and 60. It only occurs before the age of 40 in five to 10 percent of cases. People with a family history are more likely to develop this disorder. The four major motor problems seen in PD are: * tremor—shaking that occurs at rest * slow movements * stiffness of arms, legs, and trunk * problems with balance and tendency to fall Secondary symptoms of PD include: * blank facial expression * a tendency to get stuck when walking * small, cramped handwriting * muffled, low-volume speech * decreased blinking and swallowing * tendency to fall backwards * reduced arm swinging when walking Other, more extreme, symptoms of PD are: flaky white or yellow scales on oily parts of the skin, known as seborrheic dermatitis * sleep disturbances—including vivid dreams, talking, and movement during sleep * depression * anxiety * hallucinations * psychosis * problems with attention and memory * difficulty with visual-spatial relationships There is no specific test for PD. Diagnosis is made based on health history and a physical and neurological exam. Tests such as C AT scan or MRI may be used to rule out other conditions. Adequate rest, exercise, and a balanced diet are important. Speech therapy, occupational therapy, and physical therapy can also help to improve communication and self care. Surgical interventions are reserved for people who don’t respond to medication, therapy, and lifestyle changes. So are procedures such as deep brain stimulation (DBS). In almost all cases of PD, medication will be required to help control the various physical and mental health symptoms associated with the disease. Drugs and Medication Used to Treat Parkinson’s Disease | Medication A number of different drugs can be used to treat PD. Levodopa Levodopa is the most common treatment for PD. It helps to replenish dopamine. About 75 percent of cases respond to levodopa, but not all symptoms are improved. Levodopa is generally given with cardiodopa. This delays the conversion of levodopa to carbidopa until it gets into the brain. Dopamine Agonists Dopamine agonistscan imitate the action of dopamine in the brain. Dopamine agonists are less effective than levodopa. However, they can be useful as bridge medications when levodopa is less effective. Drugs in this class include bromocriptine, pramipexole, and ropinirole.

Uniformity of gamma camera images

Uniformity of gamma camera images Introduction In 1958, Hal Anger developed the first ?- camera and forever changed the area of nuclear medical imaging. Angers camera (also known as scintillation camera or gamma camera) used a 6 mm thick scintillation crystal (NaI) coupled to seven photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), each 3.5 cm diameter, arranged in a hexagonal shape. The crystal was used to convert the gamma rays into scintillation photos which would then be converted into electrical signals by the PMTs. The output of the PMTs in Angers camera was analogue and represented continuous values of gamma ray energy and the position of the event. The camera had a collimator mounted in front of the sodium iodine crystal, which was used to stop scattered gamma rays and essentially form the image. In the initial design of the gamma camera all the circuits were analogue and the camera is still known as an analogue camera. The images were displayed in cathode ray tubes (CRTs) or they were imprinted onto photographic films which were used as hard copies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Later on, with the development of electronics and computer technology, the analogue output of the photomultiplier tubes would be fed into a digital computer which would process the signals to form the clinical image. In order to achieve that, analogue to digital converters (ADCs) were incorporated into Angers design which would digitize the signals before feeding it to the processing unit. Gradually all the major electrical components of the gamma camera were replaced by digital electronics and in modern cameras the signals are digitized by ADCs installed individually in every PMT. The complete digitization of the gamma camera allowed for significant improvements of the prototype gamma camera. With the increased processing power available, modern gamma cameras can nowadays image at high count rates, can store digital images and display them directly onto computer screens. Furthermore, they can implement a range of corrections which have drastically imp roved the quality of the modern clinical images. Our objective in this essay is to describe the factors that affect the uniformity of gamma camera images, the technological advancements that have improved the cameras imaging quality and capability as well as the methods that are currently used to assess and correct a ? cameras uniformity. The basic components of a gamma camera and their function The general principles behind the function of a gamma camera are rather simple to understand. So, before we proceed onto discussing the uniformity of a ?-camera, we ought to mention its basic components and their function since they can affect image uniformity. The main components of a gamma camera are described below. The gantry of the gamma camera provides mechanical support to the detector head. The scintillation crystal [usually NaI (TI)], is maybe the most important component of gamma camera. Its function is to convert the incident gamma rays, originating from the patient, into scintillation photons. Between the crystal and the photomultiplier tubes, a transparent light guide is put in place to maximize the optical transmission of light from the crystal to the PMTs. Once the scintillation photons reach the photocathodes of the PMTs, they get converted into photoelectrons. The photoelectrons then, go through an amplification stage where their number is multiplied by a series of dynodes. Finally the electrons hit the PMTs anode and we get the output voltage that represents our signal. The photomultiplier tubes are connected to the pulse arithmetic circuits where the position and the energy of each event are determined. In addition, at the PMT output, gamma cameras incorporate a pulse height analyzer that determines which events get accepted based on their energy. This mechanism is put in place in an effort to reject signals arising from scattered photons that have managed to penetrate the collimator. The pulse height analyzer is also known as the energy window. The energy window is usually set to accept events with energies ranging from -10% to +10% of the peak energy. For example, when imaging with 99mTc (? emitter, 140 KeV, T1/2 = 6 h) the energ y window is set between 126 KeV and 154 KeV. The final component of the detector head of the gamma camera is the collimator. It is a lead plate with a large number of holes which is placed in front of the scintillation crystal. The main function of this component is to control which of the gamma rays pass through to the crystal and which ones are stopped. Gamma rays that travel parallel to the collimators holes (perpendicular to the crystal) are allowed through while oblique rays are attenuated. The role of the collimator is essential because it provides the PMTs with the ability to identify the location of each event and it stops scattered x-rays which spoil the contrast of the images. In addition, the collimator provides physical protection to the extremely sensitive and fragile scintillation crystal that lies beneath it. Camera Uniformity The term uniformity refers to the variations of intensity present in an image acquired using a uniform radioactive source. Factors that affect ? camera uniformity In the previous section of this essay we described briefly the function of the gamma camera. In reality however, things do not work perfectly. In fact there are numerous sources that can cause image imperfections and ruin the uniformity of our images. The most common sources and factors that affect image uniformity are: Collimator defects variations in hole size and angulation variations in septal thickness Crystal and light guide non uniformities in the crystals stopping power non uniformities in the number of scintillation photons emitted by the crystal non uniformities in the transmission of light through the light guide and the optical grease Photomultiplier Tubes variations in light collection efficiency with the events position in the crystal due to geometry variations in light collection efficiency with the depth of interaction in the crystal due to geometry variations in the quantum efficiency of the photocathode across the face of the photomultiplier tubes variations in PMT tuning gain differences between PMTs Count rate Energy of incident gamma rays To begin with, it is fairly obvious that a poorly constructed or damaged collimator will affect primarily the sensitivity of the gamma camera. The sensitivity variations arise from the fact that a defective collimator will attenuate gamma rays in a non uniform manner. That is to say, that the number of gamma rays which pass through the collimators holes will vary either due to differences in the septal thickness or due to differences in the angulation of the holes. So, the image will appear either hot or cold depending on the number of counts, thus ruining the uniformity of the image. The collimator, however, is not the only cause of imperfections. In an ideal world, the scintillation crystal would exhibit properties such as homogeneous stopping power, interaction with gamma rays only through photoelectric absorption, transparency towards scintillation photons and high conversion efficiency (gamma to scintillation photons). However, in reality, the crystal presents with variations in its stopping power which ultimately lead to sensitivity imperfections and the appearance of hot and cold spots on our images. As we mentioned above, this variation in counts is a manifestation of non uniformity. Furthermore, the scintillation crystals exhibit incongruities in their light output. This is attributed to variations in the doping of the crystal with the chemical which serves as the activation centre for the luminescence phenomenon. (In the NaI crystal the doping is performed using thallium). In addition real crystals exhibit non uniform transmission of light, in cases where the optical grease used to couple Crystal-PMTs is dried out, or if the crystal has been exposed to moisture in which case opacities (yellowing) are developed. Finally, non uniformities in the images also originate from variations in the fraction of light that the photomultipliers collect. Light is lost between the gaps of the PMTs array but also near the edges of each individual PMT due to reflection. The majority of scintillation photons are collected near the center of the PMT, where the collection efficiency is best. This causes the counts to appear as if they were pulled towards the centre of the PMT and results to non- linearities. Even, the smallest non linearities will result in large non uniformities in the images. Last but not least, we ought to mention non uniformities arising from variations in the function of the photomultiplier tubes. The photocathode of a PMT, in reality, does not convert photons into electrons uniformly. Its quantum efficiency is better near its center and deteriorates as we move toward the edges. In addition, different PMTs tend to exhibit slightly different gains which ultimately lead to non uniformities. For example, a PMT with a gain above/below the correct gain will result in fewer counts falling within the energy window, creating a cold area over the dysfunctional PMT. Drift in PMT gain is usually caused over time, due to ageing, exposure to magnetic fields (Earth, MRIs), temperature fluctuations or power supply instabilities. So far we have discussed how the function of the gamma camera components can affect uniformity in practice. For completeness, we ought to mention that gamma camera uniformity (specifically the intrinsic uniformity) can also be affected by other factors such as: the activity of the radionuclide used to image, the number of acquired counts, the source-camera distance and the source volume. According to Elkamhawy, Rothenbach, Damaraju and Badruddin the intrinsic uniformity of the gamma camera increases with the increase of the source activity. However the increase in activity must not exceed the count rate capabilities of the camera otherwise non uniformities may be caused. In addition, according to Elkamhawy et al., the intrinsic uniformity increases as the counts go up. This is something to be expected, considering the probabilistic nature of the phenomenon of radioactive decay. Poisson statistics teach us that as the counts become higher the relative standard deviation decreases. That is to say that the coefficient of variation is reduced as the number of counts goes up and the statistical noise decreases. Finally, there are reports of an inverse correlation between the source to camera distance and the intrinsic uniformity. As the distance increases the intrinsic uniformity is increased due to a more uniform attenuation of the gamma rays travelling towards the crystal. That is to say, when the source is close to the crystal the gamma rays have to travel longer to reach the edges of the crystal than the centre. (See figure 2). Therefore the gamma rays travelling towards B will suffer greater attenuation that gamma rays travelling to point A. This dif ference in attenuation will result in count differences thus increasing the intrinsic non uniformity. However, if we increase the source to crystal distance, the gamma rays will undergo more or less the same attenuation due to the inverse square law and the counts will be more uniform throughout the crystal. Developments in gamma camera technology that have contributed in uniformity improvements. In older, analogue gamma cameras, the only correction that could be performed was a sensitivity correction that dealt with sensitivity variations on the images. Following the technological developments, the high processing capabilities of modern microprocessors and the implementation of analog to digital converters into their design, modern gamma cameras have been equipped to deal with non uniformities through a series of corrections.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Differences in photomultiplier gain used to be dealt with using the cosmetic approach which entailed the individual tuning of each PMT to match the other. Advances in microprocessors now allow for more advanced approaches. Maps containing the regional differences in pulse heights, as acquired from uniform flood sources, can be used to correct on an event to event basis (on the fly). As we mentioned earlier PMTs are affected by various external factors and they are caused to drift. Novel technologies have been introduced into gamma cameras which enables them to keep the gains stable in real time. For example, manufactures such as Toshiba, Elscint and IGE have implemented auto stabilization techniques where LEDs are used to tune the PMTs. The LEDs emit light which is detected by the tubes and the output voltage is then compared with a reference voltage and the gain is adjusted accordingly. With the increased processing power other corrections are current ly being used too. Linearity and energy corrections are common ways to improve the degree of uniformity in modern cameras. In the energy correction the most common practice is to expose the camera to a monochromatic gamma ray source (usually 99mTc) and acquire reading for the energy in various positions. Theoretically, the energy signal should remain constant independent of location on the crystal. However, as we have mentioned earlier there is always a small fraction of light which is lost. So, the readings are compared to the mean expected energy and a map of correction factors is stored in the gamma cameras memory which is used to rectify any errors in the energy signals. The linearity correction has a similar function. We would expect every events position coordinates to appear as a linear combination of the PMTs output voltages. , Y. But again due to light losses that is never true in practice. Fortunately, this is easily corrected through the linearity correction maps similar to those that we acquire for the energy correction. First of all, we remove the collimator and we introduce a lead plate with parallel holes throughout its extent. Then the system is exposed to a uniform point source. The image is processed and the positional errors are determined and stored as a separate correction map. The final correction to be applied on an image is the sensitivity correction, which has been used in the past as the only uniformity correction of analogue cameras. In modern cameras the technicians first stabilize the gains of the PMTs and then they proceed to apply the energy and linearity correction which have the greatest impact in the cameras uniformity. Then, and only then, they proceed with the sensitivity correction. The correction maps for the sensitivity are acquired by exposing the gamma camera (with the collimator mounted) to a uniform radioactive source. The counts are scaled up or down to eliminate any remaining cold or hot spots on the image. We should note that the individual correction maps should be acquired for each collimator since the sensitivity variations are primarily caused by collimator defects and other factors that we have already discussed. The scientific community has not stopped at the abovementioned corrections. Manufacturers and researchers have shifted their focus to new technologies hoping to replace components that contribute to bad uniformity but also to improve other gamma camera properties (resolution, count rate capability e.t.ch). For example, position sensitive photomultiplier tubes have been introduced (Hamamatsu, Photonis et. al.), which are capable of detecting the location of the event more accurately and efficiently that conventional PMTs. In addition to that, silicon photodiode arrays are being used coupled to the scintillation crystals for improved light sensitivity and quantum efficiency. Finally, there is a shift of interest towards replacing scintillation crystals with semiconducting materials. The combination of cadmium telluride with zinc makes for a great x ray and gamma ray detector. The main advantage of semiconductors over scintillation crystals is that the first converts photons directly in to electrical current. Contrary to the scintillation crystal that needs to use the photomultiplier tubes which are a significant source of non uniformities as we have mentioned. Quality Control: Measurement of non uniformity in gamma cameras Maintaining good uniformity in clinical images is extremely important. Even the smallest degree of non uniformity can cause artifacts which can prevent doctors from diagnosing the patient or lead them to the wrong diagnosis. The assessment of a gamma cameras uniformity is an integral part of its quality control and it is carried out in regular intervals (daily or weekly basis). These kind of investigations are carried out to ensure that there are no, non-uniform areas in the cameras field of view. The uniformity of a gamma camera can be measured either intrinsically or extrinsically. In the intrinsic setup, the collimator is removed and the naked crystal is exposed to a low activity uniform flood source. This setup has the advantage that the measurements are not affected by collimator induced non uniformities. In the extrinsic setup the system uniformity is assesses and the collimator is mounted onto the crystal. The advantage in this case is that the conditions of measurement are closer clinical parameters since in clinical acquisition the collimator is always in place. As far as the flood sources are concerned, 99mTc and 57Co are the most common choices. The technetium has the advantage of being readily available in hospitals and can be used as a mixture of radioactive material and water to create a uniform flood source. Also technetium is the most common radionuclide used in daily medical practices. Moreover, the presence of water presents a more realistic scatter source re sembling scattering conditions in patients. The main drawback of the technetium flood source is that it has a short half life and must be used soon after its creation. In addition, the construction method presents with the danger of spilling and contamination. An alternative to 99mTc is a 57Co source which has a convenient half life of 271 days. The peak energy of cobalt is close to that of technetium which is convenient in cases where the cameras performance is energy dependent. On the other hand, cobalt flood sources are quite costly and are usable only for about a year. Furthermore, cobalt sources often contain amounts of other cobalt isotopes Co60 and Co58 which emit higher energy gammas and may affect our measurements. A common testing protocol is the following. The radioactive source is placed at a distance approximately 4 times the field of view to ensure that the variation between the counts in the centre and the edge of the crystal is sufficiently small (as we have explained in figure 2) and can be ignored. The crystal is irradiated uniformly and a few million counts are acquired (approximately 1- 5 million counts). We need to acquire a statistically sufficient number of counts to ensure that the Poisson noise is minimal. We make sure that all the right corrections have been applied before we assess the images. A visual inspection of the images usually reveals gross deviations in performance. However, once the images have been acquired they are processed, using the cameras software, to yield values for common parameters such as the mean uniformity and the corrected uniformity which are used to quantify the quality of the camera. The mean uniformity informs us for the overall uniformity of the c amera throughout the FOV. The corrected uniformity is acquired by removing the Poisson noise from the mean uniformity. Those are not the only parameters that we can examine and other such as the integral uniformity and the differential uniformity are often assessed. Conclusion The uniformity of a gamma camera is maybe the most important parameter that expresses the quality of the cameras performance. Non uniform areas in the field of view can result in misdiagnosed patients and low quality of clinical services. Thus it is essential to perform regular checks to ensure optimal performance of the ? camera. Assessing the uniformity of a camera is not easy. As a parameter, uniformity is dependent on many factors and there are many things that can go wrong. Gamma cameras require regular testing, responsible operation and expert knowledge of its governing principles to make sure that its performance stays within clinically acceptable levels. References Professor Richard Lawson, The Gamma Camera , Lecture notes for the Nuclear Medicine Module of the University of Manchester MSc in Medical Physics, 2010. Peter F. Sharp, Howard G. Gemmell , Alison D. Murray, Practical Nuclear Medicine , 1-19, 65-90 Springer Publications, Third Edition. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_camera EMITEL, http://www.emitel2.eu/emitwwwsql/encyclopedia.aspx, Scintillation Camera http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/ Gamma_camera_cross_section.PNG Abdelhamid A. Elkamhawy, Joseph R. Rothenbach, Srikanth Damaraju and Shamim M. Badruddin, Intrinsic Uniformity and Relative Sensitivity Quality Control Tests for Single Head Gamma Cameras, Nuclear Medicine Department, Cuero Community Hospital, Cuero; and Nuclear Medicine Department, Spohn Shoreline Hospital, Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technology 2000; 28: 252-256 A. Hughes and P.F Sharp, Factors affecting gamma camera non-uniformity, Department of Bio-Medical Physics and Bio-Engineering, university of Aberdeen, Forester hill, Aberdeen, AB92ZD, UK, Phys. Med. Bio., 1988, Vol 33, No.2, 259-269, IOP Publishing Ltd, 1988 A. Hasman, PhD and R.T Groothedde, Gamma camera uniformity as a function of energy and count rate, Department of Medical Informatics, Medical Faculty, Free University Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Department of Radiotherapy an d Nuclear Medicine, St. Radboud University Hospital, Nijmegen, The Netherlands, British Journal of Radiology, 49, 718 722, 1976 William R. Hendee and E.Russell Ritenour, Medical Imaging Physics, Wiley Publications, 4th Edition, Pages 179-195, 198-215 http://csusap.csu.edu.au/~xzheng/lectures/phy232/phy232topic8.ppt, Gamma Camera (II), Charles Sturt University Hamamatsu Photonics, Position Sensitive Detectors, http://sales.hamamatsu.com/index.php?id=20231language=1 Wikipedia, Cadmium Telluride, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_tellurid Michael K. OConnor, Quality Control of Scintillation Cameras (Planar and SPECT), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, published on the website of the American Association of Physicists in Medicine. Uniformity measurement, Isotrak C-ThruTM Flood Source, High Technology Sourced Ltd, www.hightechsource.co.uk Length : 3.300 excl references and title.